Democratic Paradigm Innovation Led by Digital Transformation and Future Strategies for Realizing K-Democracy

Introduction

The democratic movements of modern Korean history have developed through a continuous flow from the March 1st Movement to the Candlelight Revolution. The preamble of the Constitution explicitly states the inheritance of the “legal order established by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea founded on the March 1st Movement and the democratic ideology of the April 19th Movement that resisted injustice,” emphasizing that the March 1st Movement and the April 19th Revolution are the roots of Korean democracy. “K-Democracy” refers to the context and tradition of this unique struggle for democratization. It signifies the distinctive democratic path of South Korea that has developed through continuous resistance and participation of citizens, starting from the national independence movements during the Japanese colonial period, through civilian uprisings against military dictatorship, to the Candlelight Citizens’ Movement of the 21st century. This article will examine the democratic movements representative of each era concisely and accurately. It will analyze the continuity between the movements, the historical context, changes in citizen participation methods, and the unique characteristics of Korean democracy that distinguish it from external models. Additionally, it will derive the core values that permeate all movements, highlighting that K-Democracy is a culture and identity of democracy that can evolve and expand in the future.

March 1st Movement (1919): The Emergence of National Sovereignty Awareness

On March 1, 1919, the nationwide 3·1 Movement was a massive nonviolent resistance movement in which the Korean people cried out for independence and freedom against Japanese colonial rule. People from all walks of life, regardless of urban or rural, male or female, participated and shouted for independence, leading to this great popular uprising capturing the world's attention and resulting in the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. The 3·1 Movement transcended the feudal monarchy system and formed a national consensus for a democratic republic, becoming the common foundation of future freedom and democracy in Korea. While it had the character of an independence movement, the experience of the people stepping forward as the主体 of politics and realizing their rights is evaluated as the starting point of the Korean democratization movement. Even amidst violent suppression by the Japanese, the spirit of the 3·1 Movement, which ignited through nationwide solidarity and voluntariness, became the seed of the consciousness of citizen sovereignty, signifying that "the people are the masters of the country," for future generations.

Jeju 4·3 Incident (1948): Popular Resistance Against Division and Tyranny

The Jeju 4.3 incident was a tragic conflict that occurred during the establishment of the South Korean government after liberation, where the people of Jeju rose against the oppressive state power. Triggered by the shooting of civilians by the police during the March 1st celebration in 1947, the anger of the Jeju people exploded, and on April 3, 1948, an armed group affiliated with the Korean Workers' Party launched an uprising by attacking police stations, escalating the situation. The U.S. military government and the Rhee Syng-man administration suppressed this with military force, resulting in a tragedy where approximately 14,000 to 30,000 residents, accounting for about 10% of the Jeju population, lost their lives during the suppression process that lasted until 1954. At the time, the government labeled the Jeju uprising as a communist rebellion, but later, through the movement for truth-finding, it was re-evaluated as a tragic popular uprising that was a victim of state violence. In 1987, students from Jeju National University held the first commemorative ceremony for the 4.3 incident, and as they displayed a poster designating the 4.3 as a "popular uprising," they were immediately detained. This moment marked the official recognition of the democratic nature of the long-tabooed 4.3 by civil society. The Jeju 4.3 remains a symbol of popular resistance against the division of the Korean peninsula and the formation of a dictatorial regime, and it has been passed down as a struggle for memory and solidarity in subsequent regional popular uprisings, such as the Gwangju Uprising on May 18. The collective memory of the 4.3 incident, which represents state violence, serves to remind us of the importance of human rights and peace, and has become a deep scar that Korean democracy must overcome.

April 19 Revolution (1960): The first civic revolution against fraudulent elections

The April 19 Revolution is the first democratic civic revolution in South Korea, ignited by the anger of students and citizens against the unjust 3.15 fraudulent election aimed at the prolonged rule of President Syngman Rhee. The student protests, which began in Daegu on February 28, 1960, spread nationwide as a rebellion on April 19, with many casualties occurring due to police gunfire, leading citizens from all walks of life to take to the streets to resist together. Ultimately, on April 26, President Rhee announced his resignation, marking the collapse of the dictatorial regime. The April 19 Revolution was a spontaneous civic uprising against electoral fraud and dictatorial power, deeply ingraining in Korean society the historical value that democracy should strive for. Although the revolution remained an unfinished success due to the May 16 military coup, the noble sacrifices of April 19 became the spiritual foundation for future democratic struggles. This revolution is evaluated as the first democratic civic revolution in Asia and has been enshrined in the preamble of the constitution, inheriting the legitimacy of the democratic order in South Korea. The passion of the students, the solidarity of the citizens, and their sense of justice remain a precious legacy of the tradition of Korean democracy.

Buma Uprising (1979): The Last People's Uprising that Overthrew the Yushin Dictatorship

The Busan-Masan Democratic Uprising was a large-scale anti-government popular uprising that occurred in October 1979 in the cities of Busan and Masan, during the latter part of Park Chung-hee's authoritarian regime. Amidst the intensifying repression following events such as the YH Trading women's workers' sit-in at the New Democratic Party headquarters and the expulsion of lawmaker Kim Young-sam, protests calling for the "abolition of Yushin" began on October 16, led by students from Pusan National University. Soon, many citizens joined in, resulting in fierce struggles that included street marches and arsons of public offices. The protests spread to Masan on October 18, with not only students but also citizens from various social classes coming out to resist. The Park Chung-hee regime declared martial law in the Busan-Masan area and deployed military forces to suppress the protests however, during this process, conflicts within the regime escalated, ultimately leading to the assassination of President Park Chung-hee on October 26. The Busan-Masan Uprising directly triggered the collapse of the Yushin regime and was the last major popular uprising through which the accumulated grievances of workers and students in the 1970s were explosively expressed. It was the first instance after the April 19 Revolution in which citizens risked their lives to stand against dictatorship at a local level, serving as a turning point for the democratization movement in the 1980s. Today, the Busan-Masan Uprising is designated as a national commemorative day, honoring its spirit and remaining a symbolic event in history that signifies the end of dictatorship through the solidarity and sacrifice of the local populace.

May 18 Gwangju Democratization Movement (1980): The Sacrifice of Citizens Against Military Dictatorship

The Gwangju Uprising, or the May 18 Democratic Movement, was a pro-democracy movement that took place in Gwangju, Jeollanam-do from May 18 to May 27, 1980, in resistance to the military dictatorship of the new military government. After the death of Park Chung-hee in 1979, the new military leaders, including Chun Doo-hwan, expanded martial law nationwide and suppressed student movements, which led to protests by students from Chonnam National University. As civilian casualties increased due to the excessive suppression by the martial law troops, enraged citizens and students in Gwangju rose up together, seizing the city center around the city hall and demanding the lifting of martial law, the establishment of a democratic government, and the resignation of the military regime. Citizens spontaneously organized a citizen army to confront the martial law troops, turning Gwangju into a temporary haven of freedom. However, in the early hours of May 27, a large military force was deployed, leading to a brutal crackdown that resulted in a tragic incident with official casualty counts of over 200 and unofficial figures in the hundreds. At that time, the new military regime distorted and concealed the Gwangju incident as "the riot of the rebels," but through the efforts of pro-democracy forces and the media for truth-finding, its honor was restored as the "Gwangju People's Uprising" or "May 18 Democratic Movement." May 18 has become a symbol of the most tragic yet noble sacrifice in the history of Korean democracy and has indelibly impressed the reality of military dictatorship upon the entire nation, becoming a powerful spiritual source for subsequent democratic movements. Throughout the 1980s, struggles for memory to reveal the truth of May 18 continued, and songs like "The March for the Ailing" and commemorative events became the focal point of the democratic movement. The value of May 18 was elevated through the June Democratic Uprising of 1987, and today it is designated as a national memorial day, with discussions of constitutional amendments to inherit its spirit, making it a core asset of Korean democratic identity.

June Democratic Uprising (1987): Democracy and Constitutional Government Achieved by the Power of Citizens

The June Democratic Uprising was a large-scale civic uprising that took place nationwide in June 1987, representing a decisive event that brought about full-fledged democratization in South Korea by demanding democratic reforms, including constitutional amendments for direct presidential elections, against the authoritarian military regime. The background of the uprising was formed by the national outrage that built up in response to the death of Seoul National University student Park Jong-chul in January due to police torture and the Jeon Doo-hwan regime's repression following the April 13th constitutional amendment rejection. On June 10, the nationwide uprising officially began with simultaneous citizens' rallies in 22 cities led by the National Movement for the Recovery of Democratic Constitution. In the following month, daily protests occurred across the country in cities like Seoul, Busan, Daegu, and Gwangju, with participation from a diverse range of social classes, including workers, students, housewives, and clergy, estimated to total between four to five million people. Notably, members of the urban middle class, referred to as the "tie-wearing troops," took to the streets shouting "Abolish the Emergency Decree, Overthrow the Dictatorship," marking a clear distinction from previous uprisings. The regime faced increasing pressure and ultimately, on June 29, ruling party representative Roh Tae-woo announced the June 29 Declaration for Democracy, accepting the demands for a constitutional amendment for direct presidential elections, thus concluding the uprising with a victory for the citizens. This marked the end of a prolonged military dictatorship and the establishment of the 1987 Constitution, initiating the democratic constitutional order of the Sixth Republic. The June Democratic Uprising became a symbolic event that represented a peaceful revolution whereby the political structure was changed solely through the power of the people, marking South Korea's full entry into a democratic era where citizens became the main actors. The subsequent labor movements from July to September further spread the democratic labor union movement, causing a wave of democratization to cascade through various political and social domains. The June Uprising is evaluated as a historical event that also influenced democratization in East Asia and Eastern Europe, and it has become one of the sources of democratic pride for the Korean people.

2008 Mad Cow Disease Candlelight Vigil: A New Civic Movement of the Internet Generation

The candlelight vigil against the import of American beef, which took place shortly after the launch of the Lee Myung-bak administration in 2008, was a new form of mass movement led by the 21st-century netizen generation, showing the continuity and change of K-democracy. As concerns about the mad cow disease risk of American beef spread through the internet, various citizens, including middle and high school students, young people, and housewives, voluntarily organized the candlelight vigils through online gatherings. The first rally held on May 2 at Cheonggye Square in Seoul attracted more than 10,000 participants, which was more than expected, and the candlelight protests continued for over 100 days for more than two months. Initially calling for the renegotiation of import hygiene conditions, the agenda expanded to include opposition to education policies, the prevention of the Grand Canal project, opposition to the privatization of public enterprises, and calls for the resignation of the government as the protests continued. Every night, thousands to hundreds of thousands of citizens took to the streets, and on June 10, the rallies peaked nationwide, with hundreds of thousands marching with candles in Seoul. This candlelight vigil was the first full-fledged digital era citizen movement organized and spread through text messages, internet cafes, and Agora discussion boards. Participants included a new citizen base comprised of teenagers, young people in their 20s and 30s, and parents with children. While it claimed to be a nonviolent peaceful protest, there were some clashes with police late at night, and though the government launched a strong crackdown and a public opinion campaign, it eventually made some concessions regarding the conditions for the import of American beef. Although it did not achieve direct political results such as a change of government, the 2008 candlelight vigils demonstrated that democracy was alive in everyday life and provided an important opportunity for citizens to learn how to respond to unjust policies. Through this movement, the candlelight vigil culture became established as a prototype, paving the way for the larger candlelight revolution of the 2010s.

2016-2017 Park Geun-hye Impeachment Candlelight Revolution: The Power of Peaceful Citizens Changing the Regime

The candlelight vigils for the resignation of President Park Geun-hye, which took place from the fall of 2016 to the spring of 2017, were the largest peaceful civic protests in Korean history, attracting global attention and ultimately leading to the unprecedented impeachment and removal of a sitting president in constitutional history, referred to as the Candlelight Revolution. In October 2016, when the National Assembly's corruption scandal under the Park Geun-hye administration was revealed, citizens began to gather every Saturday in Gwanghwamun Square and other places under the slogan "Is this a country?" The first rally on October 29 saw the participation of around 30,000 people, and by the third nationwide rally on November 12, an estimated 1 million people gathered in downtown Seoul to shout for Park's resignation. The candlelight protests spread not only in Seoul but also across the country and to Korean communities abroad, with a cumulative participation of over 10 million people documented. Citizens engaged in nonviolent and peaceful demonstrations, holding candles and placards, singing, discussing, and performing in a festive atmosphere. People of all ages participated, and a mature civic consciousness was demonstrated as volunteers collected trash at the protest sites. This movement, which brought about change within a constitutional order without violence, was praised by the global media as the "new standard of democracy." In 2017, the German Friedrich Ebert Foundation awarded a human rights prize to the "candlelight citizens," recognizing the Korean candlelight protests as a new global standard for democratic participation. On December 9, 2016, the National Assembly passed the impeachment motion against President Park Geun-hye, and on March 10 of the following year, the Constitutional Court upheld the motion and removed the president. The change of government was achieved through the citizens' power in accordance with the rule of law. The candlelight revolution for Park Geun-hye's impeachment marked the pinnacle of K-democracy, a historic achievement wherein the people corrected the direction of state power and upheld constitutional order. It was a culmination of the capabilities of the Korean civil society from the democratic movements of the 1960s to the 80s, including the candlelight generation of 2008, and through this revolution, the trust in citizen sovereignty and peaceful mass action in Korean democracy was firmly established both domestically and internationally. The new government that emerged afterward identified itself as a "government born of the candlelight revolution" and began to push for the elimination of deep-rooted evils and social reforms.

2023-2024 Candlelight Vigil for Yoon Suk-yeol's Resignation and the Revolution of Light: A Movement to Safeguard Democracy in Progress

After the impeachment of Park Geun-hye and the establishment of the Moon Jae-in government, the conservative regime returned to power in 2022, prompting some segments of civil society to once again take to the streets with candles. From the second half of 2022, candlelight gatherings demanding "the resignation of President Yoon Suk-yeol" and "the investigation of Kim Geon-hee" were held weekly in downtown Seoul, and by mid-2023, the number of gatherings exceeded 50. Initially starting with thousands of participants, the gatherings saw increasing participation due to worsening economic and livelihood conditions, diplomatic issues, and controversies surrounding the erosion of democracy. In the summer of 2023, major progressive groups and labor unions united to form the 'Resignation Action Headquarters,' leading to nationwide organization, and some opposition politicians joined in, turning the candlelight protests into a movement calling for the regime's resignation. By late 2023 and early 2024, voices demanding the impeachment of the president grew louder, and large-scale gatherings were held in front of the National Assembly. After the attempt to impeach the president was blocked in December 2024, around 100,000 citizens gathered in front of the National Assembly, continuing their protests late into the night, calling for impeachment and resignation. Participants chanted slogans such as "Immediately impeach the insurrectionist Yoon Suk-yeol" and, despite the cold weather, expressed their strong determination to continue their protests until the president stepped down. Eventually, on March 12, 2025, the National Assembly passed the impeachment motion against President Yoon Suk-yeol with the support of 191 out of 300 sitting members. This procedure was aimed at holding the president accountable for violations of the constitution and laws, initiated by opposition parties and some independent members, and it passed through the National Assembly amid public pressure. Subsequently, on April 4, 2025, the Constitutional Court unanimously ruled to uphold the impeachment, removing President Yoon from office. The Constitutional Court highlighted significant threats to constitutional order, including the president's consideration of martial law and attempts to mobilize military and police forces, concluding that maintaining the presidency was unacceptable from the perspective of constitutional protection. As a result, the presidential position became vacant, and the 21st presidential election was held early on June 3, 2025, with the winner scheduled to take office immediately on June 4. This candlelight movement has evolved from mere protests to leading to a significant constitutional outcome in the form of presidential impeachment, serving as an example of the 'revolution of light.' It symbolizes the robust operation of the self-purification function of K-democracy. The peaceful accountability of elected power by citizens in the streets is rare globally, and this event will remain a testament to the unique dynamism and maturity of South Korean democracy.

Continuity of the democratization movement and its historical context

The democratic movements discussed earlier have evolved while influencing each other within a historical continuity. The spirit of national self-determination from the March 1st Movement and the experience of mass mobilization were passed down by the post-liberation generation, which laid the groundwork for the April 19th Revolution. In fact, the democratic movement after the April 19th Revolution recognized the March 1st Movement as a proud history of success, sharing a genealogical historical awareness that connects the Donghak Peasant Revolution, the March 1st Movement, the Gwangju Student Movement, and the April 19th Revolution. This recognition became a source of legitimacy against the dictatorial regime, and even when the military coup of May 16 attempted to erase the meaning of April 19, democratic forces asserted their legitimacy by prioritizing the memories of the March 1st and April 19th. The ideals of April 19 were trampled underfoot in Gwangju on May 18, but the truth of Gwangju spread nationwide through the dedication of student movements and dissidents in the 1980s, creating a crucible of anger. Ultimately, the June Democratic Uprising of 1987 achieved the direct election of the president and the withdrawal of the military regime, bearing fruit from the democratic aspirations that continued after April 19. The noble sacrifices and dedication of April 19 were later followed by the Busan-Masan Democratic Uprising, the May 18 Democratic Movement, the June Democratic Uprising, and the Candlelight Revolution. The unfinished revolution of one generation became a spark igniting the struggles of the next, and the memories of the martyrs and citizen heroes of each movement became the spiritual pillars of subsequent struggles. In particular, Gwangju on May 18 became the catalyst for the 1987 uprising, and the generation of the 1987 struggle became key players in leading or joining candlelight gatherings in civic society and politics after the 2000s. Thus, the solidarity and accumulation of experiences across generations established K-democracy not as a relic of the past, but as a living history in progress. Depending on the historical context, the goals of struggle have also evolved. Unlike the focus on overthrowing dictatorship and achieving direct elections in the 1960s to 1980s, the candlelight citizen movement after the 2000s expanded to encompass socio-economic agendas such as eradicating corruption, safety issues, and rights to equality, marking a stage of democratization in everyday life. Each phase of K-democracy illustrates that they are not isolated events, but rather the result of evolution responding flexibly to changing historical circumstances while inheriting the spirit of previous movements.

Participation methods and changes of citizen subjects

The Korean democratization movement initially revolved around specific groups such as students and intellectuals, but gradually expanded to involve nationwide participation, undergoing significant changes in its organization and methods. During the April 19 Revolution, students led the charge while citizens followed suit. In the authoritarian period of the 1970s and 1980s, college students, youth, and opposition figures formed the core of resistance through underground organizations and pamphlets, maintaining an offline network. During this time, workers, religious figures, and politicians from the opposition also participated, leading to the formation of extensive solidarity. In the case of the Busan-Masa uprising, it began as a student protest that grew into a citywide movement as local citizens and workers joined in. The June Uprising of 1987 expanded into a nationwide struggle that included everyone from the "tie-wearing brigade" of office workers to housewives, university students, and teenagers, illustrating that the democratization movement was no longer the concern of just a select few but a societal challenge for all. In the 2000s, advancements in information and communication technology sparked innovations in citizen participation methods. From the Candlelight Vigils for Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) in 2008, digital platforms like online communities, social media, and mobile text messages became essential tools for gathering and sharing information. Citizens, gathered spontaneously through the internet, achieved rapid public mobilization without traditional organizations or leadership, and notably, students and youth formed horizontal networks based on online platforms, fostering a culture of autonomous participation. The 2016 Candlelight Revolution for the impeachment of Park Geun-hye marked the peak of this digitally-based participation. Real-time broadcasting of gatherings and active online discussions were prevalent, with the event programs crafted creatively by the citizens. The demonstration sites established a thoroughly non-violent principle and festive atmosphere, creating a safe environment for participation where families brought strollers, and teenagers spoke freely. In summary, the citizen participation in K-democracy has evolved in accordance with generational changes and technological advancements as follows: - From participation centered on a few elites and students to nationwide involvement - From offline organizational mobilization to online network-based participation - From confrontational struggle methods to peaceful and creative forms of expression However, certain aspects have remained unchanged. Citizens in Korea have always been sensitive to injustice and have shown the courage to participate without fear. When the country faced a crisis, citizens acted on their own, and this sense of agency has been the very force sustaining Korean democracy. The transformation and succession of this participation culture continue to serve as a driving force for developing K-democracy into a more inclusive and sustainable democracy.

The uniqueness of K-Democracy that distinguishes it from external models

The path of democracy in South Korea possesses several distinct unique characteristics when compared to the democratization processes in the West and other regions. First, the driving force of democratization has come thoroughly from the grassroots. Unlike some other countries where democratization has been achieved through elite compromise or external pressure, in South Korea, the struggles and sacrifices of ordinary citizens have played a decisive role. From the April 19th Revolution, the Busan-Masan Uprising, the May 18th Gwangju Democracy Movement, the June Struggle, to the Candlelight Vigils, democracy has been achieved through the direct actions of the people against power, and there is a strong sense of pride associated with this. This tradition of grassroots resistance is a rare phenomenon globally. Second, democracy is not a one-time achievement but a continuous 'ongoing' process. While many countries consider the end of authoritarianism as the completion of democratization, in South Korea, voluntary participation from citizens has continued even after 1987. From the self-immolation protests of the 1990s to the Candlelight Vigils of the 2000s and the recent Light Revolution, citizens see democracy as a process that they constantly nurture and practice. The concept of "Candlelight Citizens" symbolizes that democracy does not stop at the transfer of power through elections, but that the sovereign can gather in public spaces to express their will whenever needed. The experience of this public democracy has a significant educational effect on younger generations, leading to an increase in citizens who have experienced democracy in their daily lives. Third, there is a culture of peaceful assembly and a strong sense of solidarity. Through the long experience of military dictatorship, citizens have become aware of the risks of violence, and since the 2000s, assemblies have been maintained in an orderly and non-violent manner. Notably, the Candlelight Vigil of 2016 was held orderly without looting or arson, despite millions gathering, and this was recognized by the international community as "a model of democracy." Additionally, solidarity and community spirit that transcends regions, classes, and ideologies are also important features of the South Korean democratization movement. Incidents such as citizens from other regions aiding Gwangju citizens during the May 18 incident and volunteers sharing food and blankets during the Candlelight Vigils showcase a tradition of mutual support. Fourth, there is a combination of democracy and national narrative. The democracy movement in South Korea has been deeply intertwined with national history beyond mere political system improvements. In the March 1st Movement, the pursuit of national independence and the establishment of a democratic republic were sought simultaneously, and the democracy movement of the 1980s was closely linked to the discourse of unification and anti-foreign imperialism. Thus, the democratization movement in South Korea has characteristics of both a patriotic movement and a national movement, possessing a broad national appeal that differs from the class struggle-centered democratization in the West. In summary, K-Democracy represents a vivid embodiment of "democracy by the citizens, for the citizens." With its spirit of resistance from below, ongoing culture of participation, tradition of peaceful and solidarity-filled assemblies, and historically formed identity within the context of national history, K-Democracy has established itself as a unique form of democracy that clearly differentiates itself from external democratic models.

The Core Values that Penetrate K-Democracy

The core values that permeate the democratization movement in Korea are a common spirit that consistently manifests beyond eras and forms, serving as the philosophical foundation of K-democracy and a valuable asset to be inherited in the future. Citizen Sovereignty The spirit of Article 1 of the Constitution, which states that "the sovereignty of the Republic of Korea resides in the people," has been the fundamental driving force behind all democratization movements. From the call for self-determination during the March 1st Movement, the power of the people to overturn election results shown in the April 19th Revolution, to the ultimate decision-making rights of citizens proven during the June struggle and the Candlelight Revolution, all movements have clearly proclaimed that the people are the masters of the nation. During the 2016 Candlelight gatherings, a performance where each citizen wrote their name on a sign proclaiming "the sovereignty of the Republic of Korea resides in ○○" symbolically expressed that all citizens are sovereign. Solidarity and Community The power of "together" has always existed in the field of Korea's democratization struggles. Solidarity that transcended regions, classes, and generations created tremendous energy, enabling the expansion and continuity of movements. The solidarity between citizens and professors during the April 19th incident, the mutual protection of Gwangju citizens during the May 18th uprising, the national alliance during the June struggle, and the anonymous communities and sharing scenes at the Candlelight gatherings all demonstrated that democracy is a communal practice that goes beyond majority rule. Nonviolence and Peace The spirit of "not with guns and knives, but with bare hands in peace" is a principle that supports the moral legitimacy of K-democracy. From the March 1st Movement, there was a choice for nonviolent disobedience, and peaceful marches predominated during both the April 19th and June struggles. Especially, the Candlelight gatherings after the 2000s reached the peak of the nonviolence tradition, proceeding in an orderly manner despite millions gathering. This practically proved that democracy is built upon the values of life, safety, and tolerance. Spontaneity and Participation The Korean democratization movement was achieved through the voluntary participation of awakened citizens, rather than external commands or organized mobilization. Examples include the February 28th student protests in Daegu, local uprisings during the June struggle, and the online discussions and agenda-setting of the Candlelight gatherings. Citizens learned democracy through autonomous actions, creating a virtuous cycle in which civil society grows. Justice and Human Rights All democratization movements began with the fundamental values of justice and human dignity. The anti-colonial justice of the March 1st Movement, opposition to electoral fraud during the April 19th Movement, resistance to state violence in the May 18th Uprising, and condemnation of torture leading to death during the June struggle, as well as the rise of the right to life, social justice, and equality as core issues during the Candlelight gatherings in 2008 and 2016, highlight these values. The democratization movement originated not simply in the struggle for political power but from the national anger and moral empathy towards right and wrong. In addition to responsibility, transparency, subjective memory, and participatory democracy, the above five values—citizen sovereignty, solidarity, nonviolence, spontaneity, and justice—are the core pillars that run through K-democracy. These values, rooted in Korean history and culture, have deepened universal democratic values and have established themselves as the central principles of today's Korean democratic culture.

The Future of K-Democracy: Possibilities for Evolution and Expansion

K-democracy, which has undergone a unique historical trajectory, is not a relic of the past but a current and evolving model of democracy that continues to face constant challenges. As seen during the candlelight vigils under the Yoon Suk-yeol government in the 2020s, South Korean citizens immediately take to the streets to voice their concerns at signs of democratic regression. This demonstrates that democracy is not a completed institution, but an ongoing task that the people embody. This tradition of continuous participation acts as the resilience of South Korean democracy. Even in the face of temporary political crises or institutional regressions, the voluntary involvement of citizens can serve as a self-correcting mechanism. In the future, when representative democracy fails to meet public expectations, direct democracy in the public square is likely to function as a supplementary measure. K-democracy also holds potential to expand its international influence beyond domestic levels. The 2016 Candlelight Revolution drew global media attention, and in pro-democracy movements in places like Hong Kong and Myanmar, South Korean protest culture, songs, and slogans have been referenced. This suggests that K-democracy could serve as an inspiring example for the global civil society. The concept of "K-democracy," linked to Korean Wave culture, is increasingly positioned to enter international discourse. Domestically, a trend is emerging where K-democracy is taking root as democracy in everyday life beyond large-scale movements. Participatory budgeting, online petitions, and democratic decision-making in schools and workplaces are serving as platforms for public discourse. New civic movements focused on climate crisis response, gender equality, and the elimination of discrimination, primarily led by the MZ generation, are actively unfolding. This reflects a flow that extends democracy beyond the realm of politics to encompass civicness throughout the broader social and cultural context. Of course, challenges lie ahead for the future of K-democracy. As the generation of democratization activists ages, the younger generation in their 30s and 20s is focusing on different agendas and methods compared to their predecessors. Amid widespread political cynicism and indifference, it is crucial to contemplate how to generate new participatory momentum. Additionally, concerns have been raised that the deepening social fragmentation due to regional conflicts, generational differences, and ideological divisions may make it difficult to unite under a single slogan as in the past. Therefore, K-democracy must be restructured into an inclusive democracy that aligns with the diversity and changes within society, moving beyond simple inheritance of tradition. Open dialogue between the generations of democracy movements and the youth, strengthened civic education, and the preservation and sharing of democratic heritage are essential for this purpose. Projects such as the establishment of the Democracy and Human Rights Memorial Hall and the promotion of constitutional enshrinement of the spirits of April 19 and May 18 are receiving attention as part of the historical inheritance and intergenerational education of democracy. In conclusion, K-democracy is not a thing of the past but a model for the future. The narrative of democracy, which began with the struggle against Japanese colonialism and continues through the sea of candlelight that filled the squares, is still unfolding and writing new chapters. In South Korea, democracy is not an abstract concept but a collective creative process shaped by the blood and sweat of countless citizens. Moving forward, the core values of K-democracy will serve as significant mileposts for the advancement of democracy worldwide. The task before us is to keep this flame alive and pass it on even brighter to the next generation. K-democracy in South Korea is alive. Today, with the power of its citizens, democracy continues to move forward.